diff --git a/CMakeLists.txt b/CMakeLists.txt
index 8806a7dc..28436635 100644
--- a/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -81,6 +81,7 @@ option(WITH_BETTER_RENDERER "Experimental multi-backend renderer based on NVRHI"
 option(GENERATE_PDB "Generate executable with program debugging symbols" ON)
 option(ENABLE_MCC "Enable multicore compilation" ON)
 option(WITHDUMPGEN "Enable generating DMP files on crash" ON)
+option(ENABLE_AVX2 "Enable AVX2 instruction set (requires AVX2-capable CPU, Haswell/2013 or newer)" ON)
 
 set(BUILD_EXAMPLES OFF CACHE BOOL "" FORCE)
 
@@ -508,7 +509,6 @@ else()
 	target_compile_definitions(${PROJECT_NAME} PUBLIC WITH_DISCORD_RPC=0)
 endif()
 
-
 find_package(OpenAL REQUIRED)
 if (TARGET OpenAL::OpenAL)
 	target_link_libraries(${PROJECT_NAME} OpenAL::OpenAL)
@@ -582,4 +582,13 @@ endif()
 if(ENABLE_MCC AND MSVC)
     message(STATUS "Enabling multi-processor compilation for MSVC.")
 	add_compile_options(/MP)
+endif()
+
+if(ENABLE_AVX2)
+    message(STATUS "Enabling AVX2 instruction set.")
+    if (MSVC)
+        target_compile_options(${PROJECT_NAME} PRIVATE /arch:AVX2)
+    else()
+        target_compile_options(${PROJECT_NAME} PRIVATE -mavx2)
+    endif()
 endif()
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/application/editoruipanels.cpp b/application/editoruipanels.cpp
index 25028a8d..2afcaa36 100644
--- a/application/editoruipanels.cpp
+++ b/application/editoruipanels.cpp
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ http://mozilla.org/MPL/2.0/.
 #include "application/editoruilayer.h"
 #include "rendering/renderer.h"
 
-void itemproperties_panel::update(scene::basic_node const *Node)
+void itemproperties_panel::update(scene::basic_node *Node)
 {
 	m_node = Node;
 
@@ -290,12 +290,66 @@ void itemproperties_panel::render()
 		{
 			ImGui::TextColored(ImVec4(line.color.r, line.color.g, line.color.b, line.color.a), line.data.c_str());
 		}
+		// transform editor (position/rotation/scale) — TAnimModel only
+		render_transform_editor();
 		// group section
 		render_group();
 	}
 	ImGui::End();
 }
 
+// In-place editor for position (double precision), rotation (degrees, 0-360),
+// and uniform scale (per-axis float, 1.000) of a picked TAnimModel.
+// Other node subclasses don't expose these knobs through the same API, so the
+// editor short-circuits when the bound node isn't a TAnimModel.
+void itemproperties_panel::render_transform_editor()
+{
+	if (m_node == nullptr) { return; }
+	if (typeid(*m_node) != typeid(TAnimModel)) { return; }
+	auto *picked = static_cast<TAnimModel *>(m_node);
+
+	if (false == ImGui::CollapsingHeader("Transform", ImGuiTreeNodeFlags_DefaultOpen))
+	{
+		return;
+	}
+
+	// Position — full double precision via DragScalarN. World coordinates can grow
+	// large; %.6f gives sub-millimetre resolution at typical scenario distances.
+	{
+		glm::dvec3 location = picked->location();
+		double pos[3] = { location.x, location.y, location.z };
+		if (ImGui::DragScalarN("position", ImGuiDataType_Double, pos, 3, 0.05f, nullptr, nullptr, "%.6f"))
+		{
+			picked->location(glm::dvec3(pos[0], pos[1], pos[2]));
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Rotation — wrapped into [0,360) for display; slider clamps drags to that range.
+	{
+		glm::vec3 angles{
+			clamp_circular(picked->Angles().x),
+			clamp_circular(picked->Angles().y),
+			clamp_circular(picked->Angles().z)};
+		if (ImGui::DragFloat3("rotation (deg)", &angles.x, 0.5f, 0.0f, 360.0f, "%.3f"))
+		{
+			picked->Angles(angles);
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Scale — per-axis float, 1.000 display. Clamped to a reasonable positive range.
+	{
+		glm::vec3 scale = picked->Scale();
+		if (ImGui::DragFloat3("scale (x,y,z)", &scale.x, 0.01f, 0.001f, 100.0f, "%.3f"))
+		{
+			picked->Scale(scale);
+		}
+	}
+
+	if (ImGui::Button("reset rotation")) { picked->Angles(glm::vec3(0.0f)); }
+	ImGui::SameLine();
+	if (ImGui::Button("reset scale")) { picked->Scale(glm::vec3(1.0f)); }
+}
+
 bool itemproperties_panel::render_group()
 {
 
diff --git a/application/editoruipanels.h b/application/editoruipanels.h
index c90f3eda..41da7173 100644
--- a/application/editoruipanels.h
+++ b/application/editoruipanels.h
@@ -32,16 +32,22 @@ class itemproperties_panel : public ui_panel
   public:
 	itemproperties_panel(std::string const &Name, bool const Isopen) : ui_panel(Name, Isopen) {}
 
-	void update(scene::basic_node const *Node);
+	// non-const node pointer so the transform editor in render() can mutate
+	// position/rotation/scale of TAnimModel nodes in place. Other node types
+	// are still treated as read-only.
+	void update(scene::basic_node *Node);
 	void render() override;
 
   private:
 	// methods
 	void update_group();
 	bool render_group();
+	// renders DragFloat3/DragScalarN widgets for position, rotation and scale
+	// of the currently bound TAnimModel; no-op for other node subclasses.
+	void render_transform_editor();
 
 	// members
-	scene::basic_node const *m_node{nullptr}; // scene node bound to the panel
+	scene::basic_node *m_node{nullptr}; // scene node bound to the panel
 	scene::group_handle m_grouphandle{null_handle}; // scene group bound to the panel
 	std::string m_groupprefix;
 	std::vector<text_line> m_grouplines;
diff --git a/betterRenderer/CMakeLists.txt b/betterRenderer/CMakeLists.txt
index 1d60abd2..803ab1cd 100644
--- a/betterRenderer/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/betterRenderer/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -67,7 +67,11 @@ target_include_directories(${LIBMANUL_NAME} PRIVATE
 
 target_compile_definitions(${LIBMANUL_NAME} PRIVATE
         GLM_ENABLE_EXPERIMENTAL
-        GLM_FORCE_SWIZZLE)
+        GLM_FORCE_SWIZZLE
+        GLM_FORCE_CTOR_INIT
+        GLM_FORCE_INLINE
+        GLM_FORCE_DEFAULT_ALIGNED_GENTYPES
+        GLM_FORCE_INTRINSICS)
 
 target_compile_definitions(${LIBMANUL_NAME} PRIVATE
         _USE_MATH_DEFINES)
@@ -99,12 +103,13 @@ else ()
     target_compile_definitions(${LIBMANUL_NAME} PUBLIC "LIBMANUL_WITH_VULKAN=0")
 endif ()
 
-## For double-precision vector goodness
-#if (WIN32)
-#    target_compile_options(${LIBMANUL_NAME} PRIVATE "/arch:AVX2")
-#elseif (UNIX)
-#    target_compile_options(${LIBMANUL_NAME} PRIVATE "-mavx2")
-#endif ()
+if(ENABLE_AVX2)
+    if (WIN32)
+        target_compile_options(${LIBMANUL_NAME} PRIVATE "/arch:AVX2")
+    elseif (UNIX)
+        target_compile_options(${LIBMANUL_NAME} PRIVATE "-mavx2")
+    endif ()
+endif()
 
 target_sources(${LIBMANUL_NAME} INTERFACE "${CMAKE_CURRENT_SOURCE_DIR}/eu07_source/register.cpp")
 set_target_properties(nvrhi yaml-cpp fmt EnTT glfw yaml-cpp-parse yaml-cpp-read yaml-cpp-sandbox PROPERTIES FOLDER "libraries")
diff --git a/gl/glsl_common.cpp b/gl/glsl_common.cpp
index 2ca344f4..26c31000 100644
--- a/gl/glsl_common.cpp
+++ b/gl/glsl_common.cpp
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@ void gl::glsl_common_setup()
     "#define MAX_LIGHTS " + std::to_string(MAX_LIGHTS) + "U\n" +
     "#define MAX_CASCADES " + std::to_string(MAX_CASCADES) + "U\n" +
     "#define MAX_PARAMS " + std::to_string(MAX_PARAMS) + "U\n" +
+    "#define MAX_INSTANCES_PER_BATCH " + std::to_string(MAX_INSTANCES_PER_BATCH) + "U\n" +
     R"STRING(
     const uint LIGHT_SPOT = 0U;
     const uint LIGHT_POINT = 1U;
@@ -78,5 +79,36 @@ void gl::glsl_common_setup()
 		vec4 wiper_timer_return;
     };
 
+    // Per-instance modelview matrices for GPU-instanced draws.
+    // The UBO itself is declared in every stage so the binding stays valid,
+    // but the helper functions reference gl_InstanceID which is vertex-only,
+    // so they are guarded behind STAGE_VERTEX.
+    layout (std140) uniform instance_ubo
+    {
+        mat4 instance_modelview[MAX_INSTANCES_PER_BATCH];
+    };
+
+    #ifdef STAGE_VERTEX
+    // For non-instanced draws gl_InstanceID == 0 and slot 0 is permanently set
+    // to identity, so effective_modelview() reduces to model_ubo.modelview.
+    // For instanced draws the C++ side uploads camera-space root transforms for
+    // instances 0..N-1 and sets model_ubo.modelview to the submodel-local chain
+    // (computed from identity, NOT from the camera/instance), so the product
+    // gives the correct final transform per instance per submodel.
+    mat4 effective_modelview() {
+        return instance_modelview[gl_InstanceID] * modelview;
+    }
+    mat3 effective_modelviewnormal() {
+        // instance_modelview can include per-instance scale (uniform or per-axis),
+        // so its upper-3x3 is NOT its own inverse-transpose in the non-uniform
+        // case. Compute the correct normal matrix via transpose(inverse(...)).
+        // For pure rotation+translation this still produces the rotation matrix
+        // (one extra mat3 inverse per vertex — modern GPUs handle it cheaply).
+        mat3 instance_mv3 = mat3(instance_modelview[gl_InstanceID]);
+        mat3 instance_normal = transpose(inverse(instance_mv3));
+        return instance_normal * modelviewnormal;
+    }
+    #endif
+
     )STRING";
 }
diff --git a/gl/shader.cpp b/gl/shader.cpp
index edc52a54..248b50f1 100644
--- a/gl/shader.cpp
+++ b/gl/shader.cpp
@@ -106,6 +106,12 @@ std::pair<GLuint, std::string> gl::shader::process_source(const std::string &fil
         str += "precision highp sampler2DShadow;\n";
         str += "precision highp sampler2DArrayShadow;\n";
     }
+    // expose the shader stage to glsl_common so vertex-only built-ins
+    // (gl_InstanceID, effective_modelview, etc.) can be guarded out of
+    // fragment/geometry compilations.
+    if (type == GL_VERTEX_SHADER)        str += "#define STAGE_VERTEX 1\n";
+    else if (type == GL_FRAGMENT_SHADER) str += "#define STAGE_FRAGMENT 1\n";
+    else if (type == GL_GEOMETRY_SHADER) str += "#define STAGE_GEOMETRY 1\n";
     str += "vec4 FBOUT(vec4 x) { return " + (Global.gfx_shadergamma ? std::string("vec4(pow(x.rgb, vec3(1.0 / 2.2)), x.a)") : std::string("x")) + "; }\n";
 
     str += read_file(basedir + filename);
@@ -293,6 +299,9 @@ void gl::program::init()
 
 	if ((index = glGetUniformBlockIndex(*this, "light_ubo")) != GL_INVALID_INDEX)
 		glUniformBlockBinding(*this, index, 2);
+
+	if ((index = glGetUniformBlockIndex(*this, "instance_ubo")) != GL_INVALID_INDEX)
+		glUniformBlockBinding(*this, index, 3);
 }
 
 gl::program::program()
diff --git a/gl/ubo.h b/gl/ubo.h
index 8bac33b7..b22b17e1 100644
--- a/gl/ubo.h
+++ b/gl/ubo.h
@@ -3,9 +3,18 @@
 #include "object.h"
 #include "bindable.h"
 #include "buffer.h"
+#include <glm/glm.hpp>
 
 #define UBS_PAD(x) uint8_t PAD[x]
 
+// 12-byte vec3 for structs that must match an exact binary layout (UBOs, vertex data).
+// Stays packed regardless of GLM_FORCE_DEFAULT_ALIGNED_GENTYPES.
+// Guard prevents redefinition when stdafx.h also defines it.
+#ifndef PACKED_VEC3_DEFINED
+#define PACKED_VEC3_DEFINED
+using packed_vec3 = glm::vec<3, float, glm::packed_highp>;
+#endif
+
 namespace gl
 {
     class ubo : public buffer
@@ -43,7 +52,7 @@ namespace gl
         glm::mat4 projection;
         glm::mat4 inv_view;
         glm::mat4 lightview[MAX_CASCADES];
-        glm::vec3 cascade_end;
+        packed_vec3 cascade_end;
         float time;
     	glm::vec4 rain_params;
     	glm::vec4 wiper_pos;
@@ -78,6 +87,17 @@ namespace gl
 
     static_assert(sizeof(model_ubs) == 208 + 16 * MAX_PARAMS, "bad size of ubs");
 
+    // maximum number of instances per single GPU-instanced draw call.
+    // 256 mat4 = 16 KiB, the guaranteed minimum UBO size. Bigger batches must split.
+    const size_t MAX_INSTANCES_PER_BATCH = 256;
+
+    struct instance_ubs
+    {
+        glm::mat4 instance_modelview[MAX_INSTANCES_PER_BATCH];
+    };
+
+    static_assert(sizeof(instance_ubs) == 64 * MAX_INSTANCES_PER_BATCH, "bad size of instance_ubs");
+
     struct light_element_ubs
     {
         enum type_e
@@ -88,13 +108,13 @@ namespace gl
             HEADLIGHTS
         };
 
-        glm::vec3 pos;
+        packed_vec3 pos;
         type_e type;
 
-        glm::vec3 dir;
+        packed_vec3 dir;
         float in_cutoff;
 
-        glm::vec3 color;
+        packed_vec3 color;
         float out_cutoff;
 
         float linear;
@@ -113,10 +133,10 @@ namespace gl
 
     struct light_ubs
     {
-        glm::vec3 ambient;
+        packed_vec3 ambient;
 		UBS_PAD(4);
 
-        glm::vec3 fog_color;
+        packed_vec3 fog_color;
         uint32_t lights_count;
 
         light_element_ubs lights[MAX_LIGHTS];
diff --git a/model/AnimModel.cpp b/model/AnimModel.cpp
index f6c95345..b7c140d0 100644
--- a/model/AnimModel.cpp
+++ b/model/AnimModel.cpp
@@ -273,6 +273,7 @@ TAnimModel::is_keyword( std::string const &Token ) const {
         || ( Token == "lights" )
         || ( Token == "lightcolors" )
         || ( Token == "angles" )
+        || ( Token == "scale" )
         || ( Token == "notransition" );
 }
 
@@ -369,6 +370,23 @@ bool TAnimModel::Load(cParser *parser, bool ter)
                 >> vAngle[ 2 ];
         }
 
+        if( token == "scale" ) {
+            // Per-node scale: `scale <x> <y> <z>` (always three tokens, mirroring
+            // the `angles` syntax). For uniform scaling, write the same value
+            // three times (e.g. `scale 2 2 2`). Combines multiplicatively with
+            // any active scale block from the scenariostateserializer (which is
+            // applied at deserialize_model time before Load() is called, so
+            // m_scale already reflects the outer block when we arrive here).
+            parser->getTokens( 3 );
+            glm::vec3 factor;
+            *parser >> factor.x >> factor.y >> factor.z;
+            if( factor.x > 0.0f && factor.y > 0.0f && factor.z > 0.0f ) {
+                m_scale.x *= factor.x;
+                m_scale.y *= factor.y;
+                m_scale.z *= factor.z;
+            }
+        }
+
         if( token == "notransition" ) {
             m_transition = false;
         }
@@ -376,9 +394,80 @@ bool TAnimModel::Load(cParser *parser, bool ter)
     } while( ( false == token.empty() )
           && ( token != "endmodel" ) );
 
+    update_instanceable_flag();
     return true;
 }
 
+namespace {
+// returns true if this animation type mutates per-instance state on the shared
+// TSubModel tree, which would make batched rendering unsafe. Most animations
+// loaded from .t3d files are global functions of time (clocks, wind, sky) and
+// only transform the local modelview matrix — those are safe to share. Camera-
+// relative billboards also operate purely on the local matrix using whatever
+// modelview the caller pushed, which is exactly per-instance behaviour.
+// The runtime SetRotate/SetTranslate animations (at_Rotate / at_RotateXYZ /
+// at_Translate) are tied to per-instance iAnimOwner and are unsafe to share.
+// at_Undefined is the type assigned to .t3d submodels declared with `anim: true`
+// (a generic "this submodel is animatable" hint) and to anything else that
+// doesn't match a recognised animation keyword — these are driven by event-
+// triggered SetRotate/SetTranslate at runtime, which would silently break if
+// the model were batched.
+bool anim_type_unsafe_for_instancing( TAnimType a ) {
+    switch( a ) {
+    case TAnimType::at_Rotate:
+    case TAnimType::at_RotateXYZ:
+    case TAnimType::at_Translate:
+    case TAnimType::at_DigiClk:    // mutates child submodels via SetRotate
+    case TAnimType::at_Undefined:  // `anim: true` / unknown — driven by events
+        return true;
+    default:
+        return false;
+    }
+}
+
+// recursively walks a submodel tree and returns true if any submodel declares
+// an animation type that's unsafe to batch, OR carries the runtime "needs
+// animation matrix" flag (iFlags bit 0x4000), which is set whenever the
+// submodel was tagged as animatable in the .t3d file or had WillBeAnimated()
+// called on it during model load. Either signal means the submodel may receive
+// per-instance event-driven animation commands at runtime, which the GPU-
+// instanced path (one shared submodel tree across all instances) cannot serve.
+bool submodel_tree_blocks_instancing( TSubModel const *Sub ) {
+    if( Sub == nullptr ) { return false; }
+    if( anim_type_unsafe_for_instancing( Sub->b_Anim ) ) { return true; }
+    if( ( Sub->iFlags & 0x4000 ) != 0 ) { return true; }
+    if( submodel_tree_blocks_instancing( Sub->Child ) ) { return true; }
+    if( submodel_tree_blocks_instancing( Sub->Next ) ) { return true; }
+    return false;
+}
+} // anonymous namespace
+
+int TAnimModel::s_instanceable_total = 0;
+int TAnimModel::s_classified_total = 0;
+int TAnimModel::s_rejected_no_pmodel = 0;
+int TAnimModel::s_rejected_lights = 0;
+int TAnimModel::s_rejected_animlist = 0;
+int TAnimModel::s_rejected_animated_submodel = 0;
+
+void TAnimModel::update_instanceable_flag() {
+    // The instanceable path skips RaAnimate() entirely and only calls RaPrepare()
+    // once per bucket. The conditions below ensure that's safe:
+    //   - no lights:        per-instance light state machines must not exist
+    //   - no anim list:     per-instance submodel animations must not exist
+    //   - no animated submodels in the shared TModel3d
+    // Replacable skins, seasonal variants, and submodel replacable-skin material
+    // refs are intentionally allowed — they're either passed per-instance via
+    // Material() or share global state (season) across all instances.
+    m_instanceable = false;
+    ++s_classified_total;
+    if( pModel == nullptr ) { ++s_rejected_no_pmodel; return; }
+    if( iNumLights != 0 ) { ++s_rejected_lights; return; }
+    if( !m_animlist.empty() ) { ++s_rejected_animlist; return; }
+    if( submodel_tree_blocks_instancing( pModel->Root ) ) { ++s_rejected_animated_submodel; return; }
+    m_instanceable = true;
+    ++s_instanceable_total;
+}
+
 std::shared_ptr<TAnimContainer> TAnimModel::AddContainer(std::string const &Name)
 { // dodanie sterowania submodelem dla egzemplarza
     if (!pModel)
@@ -616,20 +705,21 @@ void TAnimModel::AnimUpdate(double dt)
 	});
 }
 
-// radius() subclass details, calculates node's bounding radius
+// radius() subclass details, calculates node's bounding radius.
+// For non-uniform scale we use the largest axis factor so the bounding sphere
+// fully contains the scaled model — undersizing would cause incorrect culling.
 float
 TAnimModel::radius_() {
 
-    return (
-        pModel ?
-            pModel->bounding_radius() :
-            0.f );
+    if( pModel == nullptr ) { return 0.f; }
+    float const max_scale = std::max( { m_scale.x, m_scale.y, m_scale.z } );
+    return pModel->bounding_radius() * max_scale;
 }
 
 // serialize() subclass details, sends content of the subclass to provided stream
 void
 TAnimModel::serialize_( std::ostream &Output ) const {
-    
+
     // TODO: implement
 }
 // deserialize() subclass details, restores content of the subclass from provided stream
@@ -639,18 +729,29 @@ TAnimModel::deserialize_( std::istream &Input ) {
     // TODO: implement
 }
 
-// export() subclass details, sends basic content of the class in legacy (text) format to provided stream
+// export() subclass details, sends basic content of the class in legacy (text) format to provided stream.
+// Smart export: omit fields that match defaults so reloaded scenarios stay clean.
+//   - if X and Z rotation are zero, fold Y rotation into the 4th token slot
+//     (the legacy `node ... model X Y Z <rotation.y> ...` format) and skip the
+//     `angles` block entirely
+//   - if any axis of rotation needs all three components, emit `angles X Y Z`
+//   - emit `scale X Y Z` only when m_scale isn't (1,1,1)
 void
 TAnimModel::export_as_text_( std::ostream &Output ) const {
+
     // header
     Output << "model ";
-    // location and rotation
-	Output << std::fixed << std::setprecision(3) // ustawienie dokładnie 3 cyfr po przecinku
-	    << location().x << ' ' 
-        << location().y << ' ' 
-        << location().z << ' ';
-    Output
-       << "0 " ;
+
+    // location and rotation. The 4th token after location is a legacy
+    // shorthand for the Y rotation. We use it (and skip the angles block)
+    // whenever the rotation is purely around Y, which is the common case.
+    bool const xz_rotation_zero = ( vAngle.x == 0.0f && vAngle.z == 0.0f );
+    Output << std::fixed << std::setprecision( 3 )
+        << location().x << ' '
+        << location().y << ' '
+        << location().z << ' '
+        << ( xz_rotation_zero ? vAngle.y : 0.0f ) << ' ';
+
     // 3d shape
     auto modelfile { (
         pModel ?
@@ -687,11 +788,22 @@ TAnimModel::export_as_text_( std::ostream &Output ) const {
     if( false == m_transition ) {
         Output << "notransition" << ' ';
     }
-    // footer
-    Output  << "angles "
-        << vAngle.x << ' ' 
-        << vAngle.y << ' ' 
-        << vAngle.z << ' ';
+    // angles directive only when X or Z are rotated — otherwise the Y angle
+    // already lives in the 4th token slot above.
+    if( false == xz_rotation_zero ) {
+        Output << "angles "
+            << vAngle.x << ' '
+            << vAngle.y << ' '
+            << vAngle.z << ' ';
+    }
+    // scale directive only when actually scaled — keeps default-scale models
+    // from being polluted with redundant `scale 1 1 1` entries on every save.
+    if( m_scale.x != 1.0f || m_scale.y != 1.0f || m_scale.z != 1.0f ) {
+        Output << "scale "
+            << m_scale.x << ' '
+            << m_scale.y << ' '
+            << m_scale.z << ' ';
+    }
     // footer
     Output
         << "endmodel"
diff --git a/model/AnimModel.h b/model/AnimModel.h
index 2d470e67..13f15a90 100644
--- a/model/AnimModel.h
+++ b/model/AnimModel.h
@@ -143,6 +143,26 @@ public:
     glm::vec3
         Angles() const {
             return vAngle; }
+    // per-axis scale, applied between rotation and the submodel-local transform chain.
+    // (1,1,1) = unchanged. Set by the `scale`/`endscale` scenario directives or the
+    // optional `scale <factor>` / `scale <x> <y> <z>` token inside a `node model` block.
+    // Per-axis values let you stretch a model along a single dimension; uniform input
+    // (single float) broadcasts to all three axes.
+    inline
+    void
+        Scale( glm::vec3 const &Factor ) {
+            m_scale = glm::vec3(
+                Factor.x > 0.0f ? Factor.x : 1.0f,
+                Factor.y > 0.0f ? Factor.y : 1.0f,
+                Factor.z > 0.0f ? Factor.z : 1.0f ); }
+    inline
+    void
+        Scale( float const Factor ) {
+            Scale( glm::vec3( Factor ) ); }
+    inline
+    glm::vec3 const &
+        Scale() const {
+            return m_scale; }
 // members
 	std::list<std::shared_ptr<TAnimContainer>> m_animlist;
 
@@ -169,6 +189,7 @@ public:
 	std::shared_ptr<TAnimContainer> pRoot; // pojemniki sterujące, tylko dla aniomowanych submodeli
     TModel3d *pModel { nullptr };
     glm::vec3 vAngle; // bazowe obroty egzemplarza względem osi
+    glm::vec3 m_scale { 1.0f, 1.0f, 1.0f }; // per-axis scale (see Scale() accessors above)
     material_data m_materialdata;
 
     std::string asText; // tekst dla wyświetlacza znakowego
@@ -189,6 +210,22 @@ public:
 //    float fTransitionTime { fOnTime * 0.9f }; // time
     bool m_transition { true }; // smooth transition between light states
     unsigned int m_framestamp { 0 }; // id of last rendered gfx frame
+
+    // true if this instance is eligible for the batched/instanced render path:
+    // no lights, no submodel animations, no replacable skins, no seasonal variants.
+    // computed once at end of Load() so the renderer can simply test the flag.
+    bool m_instanceable { false };
+    // helper: evaluates current state and updates m_instanceable accordingly.
+    void update_instanceable_flag();
+
+    // diagnostic counters (process-wide). Updated inside update_instanceable_flag()
+    // so the renderer can surface load-time classification stats in the debug overlay.
+    static int s_instanceable_total;       // count of TAnimModel*'s classified instanceable
+    static int s_classified_total;         // count of TAnimModel*'s that ran through the classifier
+    static int s_rejected_no_pmodel;
+    static int s_rejected_lights;
+    static int s_rejected_animlist;
+    static int s_rejected_animated_submodel;
 };
 
 
diff --git a/rendering/geometrybank.cpp b/rendering/geometrybank.cpp
index 137dfca2..fcd731dd 100644
--- a/rendering/geometrybank.cpp
+++ b/rendering/geometrybank.cpp
@@ -325,6 +325,13 @@ geometry_bank::draw( gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry, gfx::stream_units con
     return draw_( Geometry, Units, Streams );
 }
 
+// draws geometry stored in specified chunk InstanceCount times via instanced draw call
+std::size_t
+geometry_bank::draw_instanced( gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry, gfx::stream_units const &Units, std::size_t const InstanceCount, unsigned int const Streams ) {
+    if( InstanceCount == 0 ) { return 0; }
+    return draw_instanced_( Geometry, Units, InstanceCount, Streams );
+}
+
 // frees subclass-specific resources associated with the bank, typically called when the bank wasn't in use for a period of time
 void
 geometry_bank::release() {
@@ -416,6 +423,19 @@ geometrybank_manager::draw( gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry, unsigned int c
     m_primitivecount += bankrecord.first->draw( Geometry, m_units, Streams );
 }
 
+// draws geometry stored in specified chunk InstanceCount times via instanced draw call
+void
+geometrybank_manager::draw_instanced( gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry, std::size_t const InstanceCount, unsigned int const Streams ) {
+
+    if( Geometry == null_handle ) { return; }
+    if( InstanceCount == 0 ) { return; }
+
+    auto &bankrecord = bank( Geometry );
+
+    bankrecord.second = m_garbagecollector.timestamp();
+    m_primitivecount += bankrecord.first->draw_instanced( Geometry, m_units, InstanceCount, Streams );
+}
+
 // provides direct access to index data of specfied chunk
 gfx::index_array const &
 geometrybank_manager::indices( gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry ) const {
diff --git a/rendering/geometrybank.h b/rendering/geometrybank.h
index 9828d578..39735e00 100644
--- a/rendering/geometrybank.h
+++ b/rendering/geometrybank.h
@@ -119,6 +119,8 @@ public:
     auto append( gfx::vertex_array &Vertices, gfx::userdata_array& Userdata, gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry ) -> bool;
     // draws geometry stored in specified chunk
     auto draw( gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry, gfx::stream_units const &Units, unsigned int const Streams = basic_streams ) -> std::size_t;
+    // draws geometry stored in specified chunk N times via glDrawElementsInstanced*
+    auto draw_instanced( gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry, gfx::stream_units const &Units, std::size_t const InstanceCount, unsigned int const Streams = basic_streams ) -> std::size_t;
     // draws geometry stored in supplied list of chunks
     template <typename Iterator_>
     auto draw( Iterator_ First, Iterator_ Last, gfx::stream_units const &Units, unsigned int const Streams = basic_streams ) ->std::size_t {
@@ -180,6 +182,11 @@ private:
     virtual void replace_( gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry ) = 0;
     // draw() subclass details
     virtual auto draw_( gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry, gfx::stream_units const &Units, unsigned int const Streams ) -> std::size_t = 0;
+    // draw_instanced() subclass details. Default implementation falls back to N regular draws.
+    virtual auto draw_instanced_( gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry, gfx::stream_units const &Units, std::size_t const InstanceCount, unsigned int const Streams ) -> std::size_t {
+        std::size_t count { 0 };
+        for( std::size_t i = 0; i < InstanceCount; ++i ) { count += draw_( Geometry, Units, Streams ); }
+        return count; }
     // resource release subclass details
     virtual void release_() = 0;
 };
@@ -208,6 +215,9 @@ public:
     auto append( gfx::vertex_array &Vertices, gfx::userdata_array &Userdata, gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry ) -> bool;
     // draws geometry stored in specified chunk
     void draw( gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry, unsigned int const Streams = basic_streams );
+    // draws geometry stored in specified chunk InstanceCount times via GPU instancing.
+    // The shader reads per-instance modelview matrices from instance_ubo[gl_InstanceID].
+    void draw_instanced( gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry, std::size_t const InstanceCount, unsigned int const Streams = basic_streams );
     template <typename Iterator_>
     void draw( Iterator_ First, Iterator_ Last, unsigned int const Streams = basic_streams ) {
             while( First != Last ) { 
diff --git a/rendering/opengl33geometrybank.cpp b/rendering/opengl33geometrybank.cpp
index 28ad6b1b..91c9a8dd 100644
--- a/rendering/opengl33geometrybank.cpp
+++ b/rendering/opengl33geometrybank.cpp
@@ -187,6 +187,57 @@ opengl33_vaogeometrybank::draw_( gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry, gfx::stre
     }
 }
 
+// draw_instanced() subclass details — single GL instanced draw for InstanceCount instances.
+// The vertex shader reads per-instance modelview from instance_ubo[gl_InstanceID].
+std::size_t
+opengl33_vaogeometrybank::draw_instanced_( gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry, gfx::stream_units const &Units, std::size_t const InstanceCount, unsigned int const Streams )
+{
+    setup_buffer();
+
+    auto &chunkrecord = m_chunkrecords.at(Geometry.chunk - 1);
+    if( chunkrecord.vertex_count == 0 ) { return 0; }
+
+    auto const &chunk = gfx::geometry_bank::chunk( Geometry );
+    if( !chunkrecord.is_good ) {
+        m_vao->bind();
+        if( chunkrecord.index_count > 0 ) {
+            m_indexbuffer->upload( gl::buffer::ELEMENT_ARRAY_BUFFER, chunk.indices.data(), chunkrecord.index_offset * sizeof( gfx::basic_index ), chunkrecord.index_count * sizeof( gfx::basic_index ) );
+        }
+        m_vertexbuffer->upload( gl::buffer::ARRAY_BUFFER, chunk.vertices.data(), chunkrecord.vertex_offset * sizeof( gfx::basic_vertex ), chunkrecord.vertex_count * sizeof( gfx::basic_vertex ) );
+        if( chunkrecord.has_userdata ) {
+            m_vertexbuffer->upload( gl::buffer::ARRAY_BUFFER, chunk.userdata.data(),
+                static_cast<int>(m_vertex_count * sizeof(gfx::basic_vertex) + chunkrecord.vertex_offset * sizeof(gfx::vertex_userdata)),
+                static_cast<int>(chunkrecord.vertex_count * sizeof(gfx::vertex_userdata)) );
+        }
+        chunkrecord.is_good = true;
+    }
+
+    GLsizei const inst_count = static_cast<GLsizei>(InstanceCount);
+
+    if( chunkrecord.index_count > 0 ) {
+        m_vao->bind();
+        ::glDrawElementsInstancedBaseVertex(
+            chunk.type,
+            chunkrecord.index_count, GL_UNSIGNED_INT,
+            reinterpret_cast<void const *>( chunkrecord.index_offset * sizeof( gfx::basic_index ) ),
+            inst_count,
+            chunkrecord.vertex_offset );
+    }
+    else {
+        m_vao->bind();
+        ::glDrawArraysInstanced( chunk.type, chunkrecord.vertex_offset, chunkrecord.vertex_count, inst_count );
+    }
+
+    auto const vertexcount { ( chunkrecord.index_count > 0 ? chunkrecord.index_count : chunkrecord.vertex_count ) };
+    std::size_t prims = 0;
+    switch( chunk.type ) {
+        case GL_TRIANGLES:      prims = vertexcount / 3; break;
+        case GL_TRIANGLE_STRIP: prims = ( vertexcount > 2 ? vertexcount - 2 : 0 ); break;
+        default:                prims = 0; break;
+    }
+    return prims * InstanceCount;
+}
+
 // release () subclass details
 void
 opengl33_vaogeometrybank::release_() {
diff --git a/rendering/opengl33geometrybank.h b/rendering/opengl33geometrybank.h
index 7dd54ba8..f5cd7e37 100644
--- a/rendering/opengl33geometrybank.h
+++ b/rendering/opengl33geometrybank.h
@@ -53,6 +53,9 @@ private:
     // draw() subclass details
     auto
         draw_( gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry, gfx::stream_units const &Units, unsigned int const Streams ) -> std::size_t override;
+    // draw_instanced() subclass details — issues glDrawElementsInstancedBaseVertex
+    auto
+        draw_instanced_( gfx::geometry_handle const &Geometry, gfx::stream_units const &Units, std::size_t const InstanceCount, unsigned int const Streams ) -> std::size_t override;
     // release() subclass details
     void
         release_() override;
diff --git a/rendering/opengl33renderer.cpp b/rendering/opengl33renderer.cpp
index 43fef6b4..bf46f3b7 100644
--- a/rendering/opengl33renderer.cpp
+++ b/rendering/opengl33renderer.cpp
@@ -142,6 +142,7 @@ bool opengl33_renderer::Init(GLFWwindow *Window)
 	scene_ubo = std::make_unique<gl::ubo>(sizeof(gl::scene_ubs), 0);
 	model_ubo = std::make_unique<gl::ubo>(sizeof(gl::model_ubs), 1, GL_STREAM_DRAW);
 	light_ubo = std::make_unique<gl::ubo>(sizeof(gl::light_ubs), 2);
+	instance_ubo = std::make_unique<gl::ubo>(sizeof(gl::instance_ubs), 3, GL_STREAM_DRAW);
 
 	// better initialize with 0 to not crash driver/whole system
 	// when we forget
@@ -153,6 +154,14 @@ bool opengl33_renderer::Init(GLFWwindow *Window)
 	model_ubo->update(model_ubs);
 	scene_ubo->update(scene_ubs);
 
+	// initialize instance_ubo slot 0 to identity. This is the matrix sampled by
+	// gl_InstanceID==0 in non-instanced draws, so existing rendering paths
+	// continue to multiply effective_modelview = identity * modelview = modelview.
+	{
+		glm::mat4 identity( 1.0f );
+		instance_ubo->update( reinterpret_cast<uint8_t const*>(&identity), 0, sizeof(identity) );
+	}
+
 	int samples = 1 << Global.iMultisampling;
 	if (!Global.gfx_usegles && samples > 1)
 		glEnable(GL_MULTISAMPLE);
@@ -653,6 +662,16 @@ void opengl33_renderer::SwapBuffers()
         + " =" + to_string( m_colorpass.draw_stats.models + shadowstats.models, 7 ) + "\n"
         + "drawcalls: " + to_string( m_colorpass.draw_stats.drawcalls, 7 ) + " +" + to_string( shadowstats.drawcalls, 7 )
         + " =" + to_string( m_colorpass.draw_stats.drawcalls + shadowstats.drawcalls, 7 ) + "\n"
+        + " instanced:" + to_string( m_colorpass.draw_stats.instances, 7 ) + " +" + to_string( shadowstats.instances, 7 )
+        + " =" + to_string( m_colorpass.draw_stats.instances + shadowstats.instances, 7 )
+        + " (" + std::to_string( m_colorpass.draw_stats.instanced_drawcalls + shadowstats.instanced_drawcalls ) + " batches)\n"
+        + " inst-pool:" + std::to_string( TAnimModel::s_instanceable_total )
+        + "/" + std::to_string( TAnimModel::s_classified_total )
+        + " rej(noModel/lights/anim/animSubM): "
+        + std::to_string( TAnimModel::s_rejected_no_pmodel ) + "/"
+        + std::to_string( TAnimModel::s_rejected_lights ) + "/"
+        + std::to_string( TAnimModel::s_rejected_animlist ) + "/"
+        + std::to_string( TAnimModel::s_rejected_animated_submodel ) + "\n"
         + " submodels:" + to_string( m_colorpass.draw_stats.submodels, 7 ) + " +" + to_string( shadowstats.submodels, 7 )
         + " =" + to_string( m_colorpass.draw_stats.submodels + shadowstats.submodels, 7 ) + "\n"
         + " paths:    " + to_string( m_colorpass.draw_stats.paths, 7 ) + " +" + to_string( shadowstats.paths, 7 )
@@ -690,6 +709,7 @@ void opengl33_renderer::draw_debug_ui()
         ImGui::Image(reinterpret_cast<void *>(m_pick_tex->id), ImGui::GetContentRegionAvail(), ImVec2(0, 1.0), ImVec2(1.0, 0));
     }
     ImGui::End();
+
 }
 
 // runs jobs needed to generate graphics for specified render pass
@@ -2659,9 +2679,14 @@ void opengl33_renderer::Render(cell_sequence::iterator First, cell_sequence::ite
         case rendermode::shadows:
         {
             // TBD, TODO: refactor in to a method to reuse in branch below?
-			// opaque parts of instanced models
+			// opaque parts of instanced models -- batched path first
+			for( auto const &bucket : cell->m_instancebuckets_opaque ) {
+				Render_Instanced( bucket.first.pModel, bucket.second );
+			}
+			// remaining (non-instanceable) opaque instance nodes go through the per-node path
 			for (auto *instance : cell->m_instancesopaque)
 			{
+				if( instance->m_instanceable ) { continue; } // already handled via bucket
 				Render(instance);
 			}
 			// opaque parts of vehicles
@@ -2677,8 +2702,12 @@ void opengl33_renderer::Render(cell_sequence::iterator First, cell_sequence::ite
         case rendermode::reflections:
         {
             if( Global.reflectiontune.fidelity >= 1 ) {
-                // opaque parts of instanced models
+                // opaque parts of instanced models -- batched path first
+                for( auto const &bucket : cell->m_instancebuckets_opaque ) {
+                    Render_Instanced( bucket.first.pModel, bucket.second );
+                }
                 for( auto *instance : cell->m_instancesopaque ) {
+                    if( instance->m_instanceable ) { continue; }
                     Render( instance );
                 }
             }
@@ -2695,7 +2724,9 @@ void opengl33_renderer::Render(cell_sequence::iterator First, cell_sequence::ite
         case rendermode::pickscenery:
 		{
 			// opaque parts of instanced models
-			// same procedure like with regular render, but each node receives custom colour used for picking
+			// same procedure like with regular render, but each node receives custom colour used for picking.
+			// picking always uses the per-instance path because each instance needs a unique pick colour;
+			// batching would assign the same colour to every instance in the bucket.
 			for (auto *instance : cell->m_instancesopaque)
 			{
 				model_ubs.param[0] = glm::vec4(pick_color(m_picksceneryitems.size() + 1), 1.0f);
@@ -2730,7 +2761,14 @@ void opengl33_renderer::draw(const gfx::geometry_handle &handle)
 	model_ubs.set_modelview(OpenGLMatrices.data(GL_MODELVIEW));
 	model_ubo->update(model_ubs);
 
-	m_geometry.draw(handle);
+	if( m_current_instance_count > 0 ) {
+		// inside Render_Instanced(): one GL instanced draw replaces what would
+		// otherwise be N regular draws (one per instance) at this submodel
+		m_geometry.draw_instanced( handle, m_current_instance_count );
+	}
+	else {
+		m_geometry.draw( handle );
+	}
 }
 
 void opengl33_renderer::draw(std::vector<gfx::geometrybank_handle>::iterator it, std::vector<gfx::geometrybank_handle>::iterator end)
@@ -2877,13 +2915,174 @@ void opengl33_renderer::Render(TAnimModel *Instance)
 	Instance->RaPrepare();
 	if (Instance->pModel)
 	{
-		// renderowanie rekurencyjne submodeli
-		Render(Instance->pModel, Instance->Material(), distancesquared, Instance->location() - m_renderpass.pass_camera.position(), Instance->vAngle);
+		// per-instance uniform scale: applied between the rotation and the
+		// submodel-local transform chain. Pushing it on the matrix stack here
+		// means Render(TModel3d, ..., position, angle) doesn't need a new
+		// signature and the same scale flows naturally into Render_Alpha and
+		// any other recursive callers.
+		auto const &scale = Instance->Scale();
+		bool const scaled = ( scale.x != 1.0f || scale.y != 1.0f || scale.z != 1.0f );
+		if( scaled ) {
+			// Per-axis scale applied between rotation and the submodel-local
+			// chain: build the per-instance transform here so we can inject
+			// glScalef before the submodel walk.
+			::glPushMatrix();
+			auto const Position = Instance->location() - m_renderpass.pass_camera.position();
+			auto const Angle = Instance->vAngle;
+			::glTranslated( Position.x, Position.y, Position.z );
+			if( Angle.y != 0.0 ) ::glRotated( Angle.y, 0.f, 1.f, 0.f );
+			if( Angle.x != 0.0 ) ::glRotated( Angle.x, 1.f, 0.f, 0.f );
+			if( Angle.z != 0.0 ) ::glRotated( Angle.z, 0.f, 0.f, 1.f );
+			::glScalef( scale.x, scale.y, scale.z );
+			Render( Instance->pModel, Instance->Material(), distancesquared );
+			::glPopMatrix();
+		}
+		else {
+			// fast path for unscaled (the common case): existing behaviour
+			Render(Instance->pModel, Instance->Material(), distancesquared, Instance->location() - m_renderpass.pass_camera.position(), Instance->vAngle);
+		}
 	    // debug data
 	    ++m_renderpass.draw_stats.models;
 	}
 }
 
+// True GPU-instanced render path for a group of TAnimModel instances sharing the same
+// TModel3d. The submodel tree is walked ONCE per batch; at every submodel that draws
+// geometry we issue a single glDrawElementsInstancedBaseVertex(N) covering all visible
+// instances. The vertex shader multiplies effective_modelview = instance_modelview[gl_InstanceID]
+// * model_ubs.modelview, where instance_modelview[i] is the camera-space root transform
+// of instance i (precomputed below) and model_ubs.modelview is the submodel-local chain
+// (accumulated by the matrix stack starting from identity, NOT the camera/instance frame).
+//
+// Batch size is capped at MAX_INSTANCES_PER_BATCH (256). Larger groups are split.
+void opengl33_renderer::Render_Instanced( TModel3d *Model, std::vector<TAnimModel *> const &Instances )
+{
+	if( Model == nullptr ) { return; }
+	if( Instances.empty() ) { return; }
+
+	// 1. Visibility / distance cull. Build parallel arrays of surviving
+	// instances and their precomputed camera-space root modelview matrices.
+	std::vector<glm::mat4> instance_modelviews;
+	instance_modelviews.reserve( Instances.size() );
+
+	// Pull the current pass camera/view transform once. We use the current GL
+	// modelview matrix as the view matrix because at the point Render_Instanced
+	// is called, OpenGLMatrices is set to the camera view (scene root) — no
+	// per-instance transform has been pushed yet.
+	glm::mat4 const view_matrix = OpenGLMatrices.data( GL_MODELVIEW );
+
+	bool prepared_shared_state = false; // RaPrepare() runs once per bucket
+	float closest_distancesquared = std::numeric_limits<float>::max();
+	material_data const *batch_material { nullptr };
+
+	for( auto *Instance : Instances ) {
+		if( Instance == nullptr ) { continue; }
+		if( false == Instance->m_visible ) { continue; }
+		if( false == m_renderpass.pass_camera.visible( Instance->m_area ) ) { continue; }
+
+		double distancesquared;
+		switch( m_renderpass.draw_mode ) {
+		case rendermode::shadows:
+			distancesquared = glm::length2( ( Instance->location() - m_renderpass.viewport_camera.position() ) / (double)Global.ZoomFactor ) / Global.fDistanceFactor;
+			break;
+		case rendermode::reflections:
+			distancesquared = glm::length2( ( Instance->location() - m_renderpass.pass_camera.position() ) );
+			if( distancesquared > Global.reflectiontune.range_instances * Global.reflectiontune.range_instances ) { continue; }
+			distancesquared += sq( EU07_REFLECTIONFIDELITYOFFSET );
+			break;
+		default:
+			distancesquared = glm::length2( ( Instance->location() - m_renderpass.pass_camera.position() ) / (double)Global.ZoomFactor ) / Global.fDistanceFactor;
+			break;
+		}
+		if( ( distancesquared < Instance->m_rangesquaredmin )
+		 || ( distancesquared >= Instance->m_rangesquaredmax ) ) { continue; }
+
+		auto const drawdistancethreshold { m_renderpass.draw_range + 250 };
+		if( distancesquared > sq( drawdistancethreshold ) ) { continue; }
+
+		auto const radiussquared { Instance->radius() * Instance->radius() };
+		if( radiussquared * Global.ZoomFactor / distancesquared < 0.003 * 0.003 ) { continue; }
+
+		if( !prepared_shared_state ) {
+			Instance->RaPrepare();
+			prepared_shared_state = true;
+			batch_material = Instance->Material();
+		}
+		Instance->m_framestamp = m_framestamp;
+		closest_distancesquared = std::min<float>( closest_distancesquared, static_cast<float>(distancesquared) );
+
+		// Build the camera-relative root modelview for this instance:
+		//   mv = view * translate(instance_pos - camera_pos) * rotate(instance_angles) * scale(m_scale)
+		// The scale is folded in here so the GPU-instanced path produces visually
+		// identical output to the regular per-instance path: each instance gets
+		// its own (translate × rotate × scale) baked into instance_modelview[i],
+		// which the shader applies via effective_modelview = instance_mv * model_local.
+		glm::dvec3 const offset = Instance->location() - m_renderpass.pass_camera.position();
+		glm::mat4 mv = view_matrix;
+		mv = glm::translate( mv, glm::vec3( offset ) );
+		auto const &angle = Instance->vAngle;
+		if( angle.y != 0.0f ) { mv = glm::rotate( mv, glm::radians( angle.y ), glm::vec3( 0.f, 1.f, 0.f ) ); }
+		if( angle.x != 0.0f ) { mv = glm::rotate( mv, glm::radians( angle.x ), glm::vec3( 1.f, 0.f, 0.f ) ); }
+		if( angle.z != 0.0f ) { mv = glm::rotate( mv, glm::radians( angle.z ), glm::vec3( 0.f, 0.f, 1.f ) ); }
+		auto const &scale = Instance->Scale();
+		if( scale.x != 1.0f || scale.y != 1.0f || scale.z != 1.0f ) {
+			mv = glm::scale( mv, scale );
+		}
+		instance_modelviews.emplace_back( mv );
+	}
+
+	if( instance_modelviews.empty() ) { return; }
+
+	// 2. Walk the submodel tree once per sub-batch. The submodel-local matrix
+	// stack starts at identity; the per-instance camera transform comes from
+	// instance_modelview[gl_InstanceID] in the shader.
+	std::size_t const total = instance_modelviews.size();
+	std::size_t offset_idx = 0;
+	while( offset_idx < total ) {
+		std::size_t const this_batch = std::min<std::size_t>( total - offset_idx, gl::MAX_INSTANCES_PER_BATCH );
+
+		// 2a. Upload N modelviews to instance_ubo[0..N-1].
+		instance_ubo->update(
+			reinterpret_cast<uint8_t const *>( instance_modelviews.data() + offset_idx ),
+			0,
+			static_cast<int>( this_batch * sizeof( glm::mat4 ) ) );
+
+		// 2b. Push identity onto the matrix stack so submodel transforms
+		// accumulate from identity, not from camera/instance space.
+		::glPushMatrix();
+		::glLoadIdentity();
+
+		// 2c. Configure the existing TModel3d/TSubModel render path. Setting
+		// m_current_instance_count routes draw(handle) calls to draw_instanced.
+		m_current_instance_count = this_batch;
+
+		Model->Root->fSquareDist = closest_distancesquared; // shared global, used by submodel LOD
+		auto alpha = ( batch_material != nullptr ? batch_material->textures_alpha : 0x30300030 );
+		alpha ^= 0x0F0F000F;
+		Model->Root->ReplacableSet( ( batch_material != nullptr ? batch_material->replacable_skins : nullptr ), alpha );
+		Model->Root->pRoot = Model;
+
+		Render( Model->Root );
+
+		m_current_instance_count = 0;
+
+		::glPopMatrix();
+
+		// 2d. Restore instance_modelview[0] to identity so subsequent
+		// non-instanced draws continue to compute identity * modelview.
+		{
+			glm::mat4 const identity( 1.0f );
+			instance_ubo->update( reinterpret_cast<uint8_t const *>( &identity ), 0, sizeof( identity ) );
+		}
+
+		offset_idx += this_batch;
+		++m_renderpass.draw_stats.instanced_drawcalls;
+	}
+
+	m_renderpass.draw_stats.instances += static_cast<int>( total );
+	m_renderpass.draw_stats.models += static_cast<int>( total );
+}
+
 bool opengl33_renderer::Render(TDynamicObject *Dynamic)
 {
 	glDebug("Render TDynamicObject");
@@ -3101,7 +3300,7 @@ bool opengl33_renderer::Render_cab(TDynamicObject const *Dynamic, float const Li
             auto const luminance { Global.fLuminance * ( Dynamic->fShade > 0.0f ? Dynamic->fShade : 1.0f ) };
             if( Lightlevel > 0.f ) {
                 // crude way to light the cabin, until we have something more complete in place
-                light_ubs.ambient += ( Dynamic->InteriorLight * Lightlevel ) * std::clamp( 1.25f - (float)luminance, 0.f, 1.f );
+                light_ubs.ambient += packed_vec3( ( Dynamic->InteriorLight * Lightlevel ) * std::clamp( 1.25f - (float)luminance, 0.f, 1.f ) );
                 light_ubo->update( light_ubs );
             }
 
@@ -3862,8 +4061,26 @@ void opengl33_renderer::Render_Alpha(TAnimModel *Instance)
 	Instance->RaPrepare();
 	if (Instance->pModel)
 	{
-		// renderowanie rekurencyjne submodeli
-		Render_Alpha(Instance->pModel, Instance->Material(), distancesquared, Instance->location() - m_renderpass.pass_camera.position(), Instance->vAngle);
+		auto const &scale = Instance->Scale();
+		bool const scaled = ( scale.x != 1.0f || scale.y != 1.0f || scale.z != 1.0f );
+		if( scaled ) {
+			// scaled instance: build the per-instance transform locally and call
+			// the distance-only Render_Alpha so we can inject glScalef before
+			// the submodel walk. Mirror of the opaque path in Render(TAnimModel*).
+			::glPushMatrix();
+			auto const Position = Instance->location() - m_renderpass.pass_camera.position();
+			auto const Angle = Instance->vAngle;
+			::glTranslated( Position.x, Position.y, Position.z );
+			if( Angle.y != 0.0 ) ::glRotated( Angle.y, 0.f, 1.f, 0.f );
+			if( Angle.x != 0.0 ) ::glRotated( Angle.x, 1.f, 0.f, 0.f );
+			if( Angle.z != 0.0 ) ::glRotated( Angle.z, 0.f, 0.f, 1.f );
+			::glScalef( scale.x, scale.y, scale.z );
+			Render_Alpha( Instance->pModel, Instance->Material(), distancesquared );
+			::glPopMatrix();
+		}
+		else {
+			Render_Alpha(Instance->pModel, Instance->Material(), distancesquared, Instance->location() - m_renderpass.pass_camera.position(), Instance->vAngle);
+		}
 	}
 }
 
diff --git a/rendering/opengl33renderer.h b/rendering/opengl33renderer.h
index c761ef49..7cfa187e 100644
--- a/rendering/opengl33renderer.h
+++ b/rendering/opengl33renderer.h
@@ -162,6 +162,8 @@ class opengl33_renderer : public gfx_renderer {
 		int lines{0};
     int particles{0};
 		int drawcalls{0};
+    int instanced_drawcalls{0}; // drawcalls issued via instanced render path (one per TModel3d batch)
+    int instances{0}; // total instances drawn via instanced render path
     int triangles{0};
 
     debug_stats& operator+=( const debug_stats& Right ) {
@@ -174,6 +176,8 @@ class opengl33_renderer : public gfx_renderer {
         lines += Right.lines;
         particles += Right.particles;
         drawcalls += Right.drawcalls;
+        instanced_drawcalls += Right.instanced_drawcalls;
+        instances += Right.instances;
         return *this; }
 	};
 
@@ -266,6 +270,12 @@ class opengl33_renderer : public gfx_renderer {
 	void Render(cell_sequence::iterator First, cell_sequence::iterator Last);
     void Render(scene::shape_node const &Shape, bool const Ignorerange);
 	void Render(TAnimModel *Instance);
+	// batched render path for many TAnimModel instances that share the same TModel3d.
+	// Caller guarantees every instance has m_instanceable == true (no per-instance lights,
+	// no submodel animation, no replacable skins). Each call counts as one
+	// instanced_drawcall in draw_stats and contributes Instances.size() to the
+	// instances counter. Instances are still individually frustum/distance culled.
+	void Render_Instanced( TModel3d *Model, std::vector<TAnimModel *> const &Instances );
 	bool Render(TDynamicObject *Dynamic);
     bool Render(TModel3d *Model, material_data const *Material, float const Squaredistance, glm::dvec3 const &Position, glm::vec3 const &Angle);
 	bool Render(TModel3d *Model, material_data const *Material, float const Squaredistance);
@@ -381,6 +391,18 @@ class opengl33_renderer : public gfx_renderer {
 	std::unique_ptr<gl::ubo> scene_ubo;
 	std::unique_ptr<gl::ubo> model_ubo;
 	std::unique_ptr<gl::ubo> light_ubo;
+	// per-instance modelview UBO for GPU-instanced draws.
+	// Slot 0 is initialized once to identity and never overwritten by non-instanced
+	// rendering, so existing draws (where gl_InstanceID==0) compute identity*modelview
+	// in the vertex shader and behave exactly as before. Render_Instanced uploads
+	// per-instance camera-space root matrices to slots 0..N-1, calls glDrawElementsInstanced*,
+	// then restores slot 0 to identity for subsequent non-instanced draws.
+	std::unique_ptr<gl::ubo> instance_ubo;
+	// when > 0, the renderer is inside a Render_Instanced() call. The draw(handle)
+	// method routes to glDrawElementsInstanced* with this many instances rather
+	// than a single regular draw. The vertex shader reads per-instance modelview
+	// from instance_ubo[gl_InstanceID]. Reset to 0 by Render_Instanced() on exit.
+	std::size_t m_current_instance_count { 0 };
 	gl::scene_ubs scene_ubs;
 	gl::model_ubs model_ubs;
 	gl::light_ubs light_ubs;
diff --git a/scene/scene.cpp b/scene/scene.cpp
index 1bc8674a..c2100449 100644
--- a/scene/scene.cpp
+++ b/scene/scene.cpp
@@ -374,6 +374,21 @@ basic_cell::insert( TAnimModel *Instance ) {
     if( alpha & flags & 0x1F1F001F ) {
         // opaque pieces
         m_instancesopaque.emplace_back( Instance );
+        // additionally route instanceable nodes into a per-(pModel, skins) bucket so
+        // the renderer can amortise material/state setup across many instances of the
+        // same TModel3d AND issue a single GPU-instanced draw call per submodel.
+        // Sub-bucketing on skin set ensures every batch has consistent textures —
+        // instances of the same pModel with different replacable skins land in
+        // different buckets and render via separate (correct) instanced draws.
+        if( Instance->m_instanceable && Instance->Model() != nullptr ) {
+            instance_bucket_key key;
+            key.pModel = Instance->Model();
+            auto const *mat = Instance->Material();
+            if( mat != nullptr ) {
+                for( int i = 0; i < 5; ++i ) { key.skins[i] = mat->replacable_skins[i]; }
+            }
+            m_instancebuckets_opaque[ key ].emplace_back( Instance );
+        }
     }
    // re-calculate cell bounding area, in case model extends outside the cell's boundaries
     enclose_area( Instance );
@@ -438,6 +453,24 @@ basic_cell::erase( TAnimModel *Instance ) {
                 [=]( TAnimModel *instance ) {
                     return instance == Instance; } ),
             std::end( m_instancesopaque ) );
+        // also remove from the per-(pModel, skins) instance bucket if present
+        if( Instance->m_instanceable && Instance->Model() != nullptr ) {
+            instance_bucket_key key;
+            key.pModel = Instance->Model();
+            auto const *mat = Instance->Material();
+            if( mat != nullptr ) {
+                for( int i = 0; i < 5; ++i ) { key.skins[i] = mat->replacable_skins[i]; }
+            }
+            auto bucket = m_instancebuckets_opaque.find( key );
+            if( bucket != m_instancebuckets_opaque.end() ) {
+                bucket->second.erase(
+                    std::remove( std::begin( bucket->second ), std::end( bucket->second ), Instance ),
+                    std::end( bucket->second ) );
+                if( bucket->second.empty() ) {
+                    m_instancebuckets_opaque.erase( bucket );
+                }
+            }
+        }
     }
     // TODO: update cell bounding area
 }
diff --git a/scene/scene.h b/scene/scene.h
index f63a7f9e..7b53783b 100644
--- a/scene/scene.h
+++ b/scene/scene.h
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@ http://mozilla.org/MPL/2.0/.
 #include <array>
 #include <stack>
 #include <unordered_set>
+#include <unordered_map>
 #include <map>
 
 #include "utilities/parser.h"
@@ -45,6 +46,11 @@ struct scratch_data {
     struct location_data {
 
         std::stack<glm::dvec3> offset;
+        // per-axis scale stack — mirrors `offset` for the `scale`/`endscale`
+        // scenario directives. Effective scale at any nesting depth is the
+        // component-wise product of all stack entries (outer `scale 2 2 2` ×
+        // inner `scale 1.5 1.5 1.5` yields (3,3,3)). Empty stack means (1,1,1).
+        std::stack<glm::vec3> scale;
         glm::vec3 rotation;
     } location;
 
@@ -179,6 +185,30 @@ public:
     using linesnode_sequence = std::vector<lines_node>;
     using traction_sequence = std::vector<TTraction *>;
     using instance_sequence = std::vector<TAnimModel *>;
+    // Composite key: instances of the same TModel3d sharing the same replacable
+    // skin set can be GPU-batched together, but instances with different skins
+    // must go to different buckets so each batched draw call uses one consistent
+    // material binding. Sub-bucketing here keeps Render_Instanced correct without
+    // forcing per-instance material switching inside a single batch.
+    struct instance_bucket_key {
+        TModel3d *pModel { nullptr };
+        std::array<material_handle, 5> skins {};
+
+        bool operator==( instance_bucket_key const &other ) const {
+            return pModel == other.pModel && skins == other.skins;
+        }
+    };
+    struct instance_bucket_key_hash {
+        std::size_t operator()( instance_bucket_key const &k ) const {
+            std::size_t h = std::hash<TModel3d *>()( k.pModel );
+            for( auto s : k.skins ) {
+                // boost-style hash combine
+                h ^= std::hash<int>()( s ) + 0x9e3779b9 + ( h << 6 ) + ( h >> 2 );
+            }
+            return h;
+        }
+    };
+    using instance_bucket_map = std::unordered_map< instance_bucket_key, std::vector<TAnimModel *>, instance_bucket_key_hash >;
     using sound_sequence = std::vector<sound_source *>;
     using eventlauncher_sequence = std::vector<TEventLauncher *>;
     using memorycell_sequence = std::vector<TMemCell *>;
@@ -196,6 +226,10 @@ public:
     path_sequence m_paths; // path pieces
     instance_sequence m_instancesopaque;
     instance_sequence m_instancetranslucent;
+    // batched instance buckets keyed by shared TModel3d*; populated alongside
+    // m_instancesopaque for nodes whose TAnimModel::m_instanceable == true.
+    // The renderer uses these to amortise per-model state setup across many instances.
+    instance_bucket_map m_instancebuckets_opaque;
     traction_sequence m_traction;
     sound_sequence m_sounds;
     eventlauncher_sequence m_eventlaunchers;
diff --git a/scene/scenenode.h b/scene/scenenode.h
index eac74651..10be9c1b 100644
--- a/scene/scenenode.h
+++ b/scene/scenenode.h
@@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ operator!=( lighting_data const &Left, lighting_data const &Right ) {
 namespace scene {
 
 struct bounding_area {
-    glm::highp_dvec3 center; // mid point of the rectangle
+    glm::dvec3 center; // mid point of the rectangle
     float radius { -1.0f }; // radius of the bounding sphere
 
     bounding_area() = default;
@@ -94,7 +94,7 @@ public:
         material_handle material { null_handle };
         lighting_data lighting;
         // geometry data
-        glm::highp_dvec3 origin; // world position of the relative coordinate system origin
+        glm::dvec3 origin; // world position of the relative coordinate system origin
         gfx::geometry_handle geometry { 0, 0 }; // relative origin-centered chunk of geometry held by gfx renderer
         std::vector<world_vertex> vertices; // world space source data of the geometry
 		gfx::userdata_array userdata;
diff --git a/shaders/simpleuv.vert b/shaders/simpleuv.vert
index f3cd0ea2..673130ae 100644
--- a/shaders/simpleuv.vert
+++ b/shaders/simpleuv.vert
@@ -7,6 +7,6 @@ out vec2 f_coord;
 
 void main()
 {
-	gl_Position = (projection * modelview) * vec4(v_vert, 1.0f);
+	gl_Position = (projection * effective_modelview()) * vec4(v_vert, 1.0f);
 	f_coord = v_coord;
 }
diff --git a/shaders/vertex.vert b/shaders/vertex.vert
index feadbe1e..5326545e 100644
--- a/shaders/vertex.vert
+++ b/shaders/vertex.vert
@@ -23,24 +23,27 @@ out vec4 UserData;
 
 void main()
 {
-	f_normal = normalize(modelviewnormal * v_normal);
+	mat4 mv = effective_modelview();
+	mat3 mvn = effective_modelviewnormal();
+
+	f_normal = normalize(mvn * v_normal);
 	f_normal_raw = v_normal;
 	f_coord = v_coord;
-	f_pos = modelview * vec4(v_vert, 1.0);
+	f_pos = mv * vec4(v_vert, 1.0);
 	for (uint idx = 0U ; idx < MAX_CASCADES ; ++idx) {
 		f_light_pos[idx] = lightview[idx] * f_pos;
-	}	
-	f_clip_pos = (projection * modelview) * vec4(v_vert, 1.0);
-	f_clip_future_pos = (projection * future * modelview) * vec4(v_vert, 1.0);
-	
+	}
+	f_clip_pos = projection * f_pos;
+	f_clip_future_pos = (projection * future) * f_pos;
+
 	gl_Position = f_clip_pos;
 	gl_PointSize = param[1].x;
 
-	vec3 T = normalize(modelviewnormal * v_tangent.xyz);
+	vec3 T = normalize(mvn * v_tangent.xyz);
 	vec3 N = f_normal;
 	vec3 B = normalize(cross(N, T));
 	f_tbn = mat3(T, B, N);
-	
+
 	mat3 TBN = transpose(f_tbn);
 //	TangentLightPos = TBN * f_light_pos.xyz;
 //	TangentViewPos = TBN * vec3(0.0, 0.0, 0.0);
diff --git a/shaders/vertexonly.vert b/shaders/vertexonly.vert
index c121b09b..370b4aa3 100644
--- a/shaders/vertexonly.vert
+++ b/shaders/vertexonly.vert
@@ -4,5 +4,5 @@ layout(location = 0) in vec3 v_vert;
 
 void main()
 {
-	gl_Position = (projection * modelview) * vec4(v_vert, 1.0);
+	gl_Position = (projection * effective_modelview()) * vec4(v_vert, 1.0);
 }
diff --git a/simulation/simulationstateserializer.cpp b/simulation/simulationstateserializer.cpp
index 0b2a9a8d..7277e338 100644
--- a/simulation/simulationstateserializer.cpp
+++ b/simulation/simulationstateserializer.cpp
@@ -93,6 +93,8 @@ state_serializer::deserialize_begin( std::string const &Scenariofile ) {
 	            { "node",        &state_serializer::deserialize_node },
 	            { "origin",      &state_serializer::deserialize_origin },
 	            { "endorigin",   &state_serializer::deserialize_endorigin },
+	            { "scale",       &state_serializer::deserialize_scale },
+	            { "endscale",    &state_serializer::deserialize_endscale },
 	            { "rotate",      &state_serializer::deserialize_rotate },
 	            { "sky",         &state_serializer::deserialize_sky },
 	            { "test",        &state_serializer::deserialize_test },
@@ -664,6 +666,43 @@ state_serializer::deserialize_endorigin( cParser &Input, scene::scratch_data &Sc
     }
 }
 
+void
+state_serializer::deserialize_scale( cParser &Input, scene::scratch_data &Scratchpad ) {
+    // Syntax: `scale <x> <y> <z>` (three tokens, mirroring `rotate`/`angles`).
+    // For uniform scaling write the same value three times (e.g. `scale 2 2 2`).
+    // Affects both:
+    //   1. positions of nodes inside the block (transform() multiplies offset by scale)
+    //   2. the per-instance m_scale stamped onto each TAnimModel created inside the block
+    // The two together let you scale a multi-node-model group built around a common
+    // origin: positions of the parts spread out by the factor AND each part is itself
+    // scaled by the same factor, preserving the visual shape of the assembly.
+    glm::vec3 factor;
+    Input.getTokens( 3 );
+    Input >> factor.x >> factor.y >> factor.z;
+    if( factor.x <= 0.0f || factor.y <= 0.0f || factor.z <= 0.0f ) {
+        ErrorLog( "Bad scale: non-positive scale factor in file \""
+                + Input.Name() + "\" (line " + std::to_string( Input.Line() - 1 ) + "); scale (1,1,1) used" );
+        factor = glm::vec3( 1.0f );
+    }
+    // scales compose component-wise, mirroring how origin offsets compose additively.
+    glm::vec3 const parent = (
+        Scratchpad.location.scale.empty() ?
+            glm::vec3( 1.0f ) :
+            Scratchpad.location.scale.top() );
+    Scratchpad.location.scale.emplace( factor * parent );
+}
+
+void
+state_serializer::deserialize_endscale( cParser &Input, scene::scratch_data &Scratchpad ) {
+
+    if( false == Scratchpad.location.scale.empty() ) {
+        Scratchpad.location.scale.pop();
+    }
+    else {
+        ErrorLog( "Bad scale: endscale instruction with empty scale stack in file \"" + Input.Name() + "\" (line " + std::to_string( Input.Line() - 1 ) + ")" );
+    }
+}
+
 void
 state_serializer::deserialize_rotate( cParser &Input, scene::scratch_data &Scratchpad ) {
 
@@ -915,6 +954,12 @@ state_serializer::deserialize_model( cParser &Input, scene::scratch_data &Scratc
 
     auto *instance = new TAnimModel( Nodedata );
     instance->Angles( Scratchpad.location.rotation + rotation ); // dostosowanie do pochylania linii
+    // pick up the scale active at this point in the scenario stream — outer
+    // `scale`/`endscale` blocks compose multiplicatively in the scratchpad.
+    // Load() may further multiply this by an inline `scale <factor>` token.
+    if( false == Scratchpad.location.scale.empty() ) {
+        instance->Scale( Scratchpad.location.scale.top() );
+    }
 
     if( instance->Load( &Input, false ) ) {
         instance->location( transform( location, Scratchpad ) );
@@ -1091,7 +1136,7 @@ state_serializer::skip_until( cParser &Input, std::string const &Token ) {
     }
 }
 
-// transforms provided location by specifed rotation and offset
+// transforms provided location by specifed rotation, scale and offset
 glm::dvec3
 state_serializer::transform( glm::dvec3 Location, scene::scratch_data const &Scratchpad ) {
 
@@ -1099,6 +1144,17 @@ state_serializer::transform( glm::dvec3 Location, scene::scratch_data const &Scr
         auto const rotation = glm::radians( Scratchpad.location.rotation );
         Location = glm::rotateY<double>( Location, rotation.y ); // Ra 2014-11: uwzględnienie rotacji
     }
+    // Scale applies in local origin space — positions inside a `scale 2 2 2` block
+    // are pushed twice as far from the local origin along each axis, so a
+    // multi-node-model group (e.g. a building made of separate node models built
+    // around a shared origin) ends up looking uniformly scaled rather than just
+    // having one piece grow. Per-axis values stretch the assembly anisotropically.
+    if( false == Scratchpad.location.scale.empty() ) {
+        auto const &s = Scratchpad.location.scale.top();
+        Location.x *= static_cast<double>( s.x );
+        Location.y *= static_cast<double>( s.y );
+        Location.z *= static_cast<double>( s.z );
+    }
     if( false == Scratchpad.location.offset.empty() ) {
         Location += Scratchpad.location.offset.top();
     }
diff --git a/simulation/simulationstateserializer.h b/simulation/simulationstateserializer.h
index fb0dd4ed..dea1e20e 100644
--- a/simulation/simulationstateserializer.h
+++ b/simulation/simulationstateserializer.h
@@ -65,6 +65,8 @@ private:
 	void deserialize_node( cParser &Input, scene::scratch_data &Scratchpad );
     void deserialize_origin( cParser &Input, scene::scratch_data &Scratchpad );
     void deserialize_endorigin( cParser &Input, scene::scratch_data &Scratchpad );
+    void deserialize_scale( cParser &Input, scene::scratch_data &Scratchpad );
+    void deserialize_endscale( cParser &Input, scene::scratch_data &Scratchpad );
     void deserialize_rotate( cParser &Input, scene::scratch_data &Scratchpad );
     void deserialize_sky( cParser &Input, scene::scratch_data &Scratchpad );
     void deserialize_test( cParser &Input, scene::scratch_data &Scratchpad );
diff --git a/stdafx.h b/stdafx.h
index 8138b138..fec02883 100644
--- a/stdafx.h
+++ b/stdafx.h
@@ -93,6 +93,9 @@
 #define GLM_FORCE_SWIZZLE
 #define GLM_ENABLE_EXPERIMENTAL
 #define GLM_FORCE_CTOR_INIT
+#define GLM_FORCE_INLINE
+#define GLM_FORCE_DEFAULT_ALIGNED_GENTYPES
+#define GLM_FORCE_INTRINSICS
 #include <glm/glm.hpp>
 #include <glm/gtc/matrix_transform.hpp>
 #include <glm/gtx/matrix_transform_2d.hpp>
@@ -105,6 +108,12 @@
 #include <glm/gtx/norm.hpp>
 #include <glm/gtx/string_cast.hpp>
 
+#ifndef PACKED_VEC3_DEFINED
+#define PACKED_VEC3_DEFINED
+// 12-byte vec3 that stays packed regardless of GLM_FORCE_DEFAULT_ALIGNED_GENTYPES.
+// Use in structs that must match an exact binary layout (UBOs, vertex data, serialized formats).
+using packed_vec3 = glm::vec<3, float, glm::packed_highp>;
+#endif
 
 
 #include "rendering/openglmatrixstack.h"